Geothermal Energy Essay -- Power Fuel Renewable Resource Global Warmin

Geothermal Energy: The Answer to the Energy Problem? Unique: The worldwide network is as of now scanning for new wellsprings of vitality that are not unfavorable to the earth, that are financially savvy, and that will have the option to accommodate the current and future interest for vitality. Geothermal vitality is one of the promising options in contrast to petroleum products since it discharges no poisonous or ozone depleting substance emanations, its present expense is diminishing yearly, and it is a persistent wellspring of vitality. It is a perfect and proficient vitality source that has the abilities to accommodate a larger part of the force utilized in the private, business, mechanical, and electric force areas. This paper will look at the current and most proficient techniques for mass creating geothermal vitality, its cost viability, ecological effect of creation, the measure of intensity it can deliver, and will decide whether geothermal vitality could be the response to the world’s vitality issue Introduction: The Un ited States is confronted with a significant issue: finding new vitality sources that would not discharge toxins discharged in the environment. The pursuit has been productive, with extraordinary improvement in sun based, and wind advances, however they stay excessively costly to mass produce and both have inconsistent creations of vitality because of an overwhelming dependence on the climate. However this hunt has likewise brought about the development and accomplishment of geothermal vitality, which gives a consistent stream of warmth vitality from inside the Earth. The geothermal field is rapidly developing, making this sustainable power source a contender among petroleum products and an incredible trust later on. Foundation: Geothermal vitality is heat from inside the Earth. This warmth vitality is either steam or boiling water that gathers ... ...hermal Power Production Jan 16 2008, Mark A. Taylor http://www.geoenergy.org/distributions/reports/Geothermal_Production_and_Development_Update_January_16_2008.html - The State of Geothermal Subsurface Technology Part1, November 2007, Mark A. Taylor - http://www.geo-energy.org/aboutGE/basics.asp - US Department of Energy: Geothermal Power Plants http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html - Energy Information Association http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/grothermal.html - US vitality utilization Data tables http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renwables/page/rea_data/rea.pdf - Geothermal Power-Energy America - http://www.energyamericaini.com/index.php/geo_power/ - National Geothermal Collaborative - Common Questions about Geothermal Energy http://www.geocollaborative.org/distributions/common_questions_About_Geothermal_energy.pdf

The story The Machine Stops relevancy to today Essay

The story The Machine Stops importance to today - Essay Example Vashti, the primary character of the story, made a call to her child Kuno in which she could see the picture of the child while they talked. In today’s society such a call is conceivable however video visit, for example, Skype or with the help of an advanced mobile phone. The machine in the story had affected the manner in which individuals lived so much that human had gotten segregated from one another. â€Å"People never contact one another† (Forster, 1909). Because of the way that individuals lived in an aircraft the vast majority of people never had visited earth. The machine gave individuals all that they need which wound up removing some portion of the humankind of individuals. In today’s society the mechanical development that has changed a ton the manner in which individuals connect with one another is the PC with web abilities. The web has changed the manner in which individuals get things done. For instance individuals these days shop a great deal onlin e as opposed to going to ordinary stores. In 2010 in the United States there was $151.1 billion worth of web based business exchanges (Plunkett Research, 2010). Individuals utilize the PC for their mingling needs through mainstream kinship sites, for example, Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace. Toward the finish of the principal section of the story Vashti went outside the aircraft in a flying vehicle that was in course to earth.

5 Times When a Personal Loan is a Bad Idea

5 Times When a Personal Loan is a Bad Idea 5 Times When a Personal Loan is a Bad Idea 5 Times When a Personal Loan is a Bad IdeaIf youre considering a personal loan to pay for something like a vacation or to cover everyday expenses, you should stop and reconsider.Unless you already have more money than you’ll ever need, you’re probably going to need a loan at some point.(And if you do have more money than you’ll ever need, why are you reading this? You should be flying your own private helicopter, dropping cash on needy families. Of course, you might be reading this article while you’re doing that, in which case you should stop and focus on the flying and cash disbursal as reading while flying is very dangerous!) Anyway, there are many good times to get a loan!“Loans are great for financial leverage,” advised Levi Sanchez, founder and financial planner at Millennial Wealth, LLC (@millennialwlth). “Meaning, they should be used in cases where access to capital to pay for an asset or education (in the case of student loan) isnt readily available. If used fo r an asset, especially one that appreciates over time (such as a home), loans can be a great way to access them.”So those are a few instances of good times to get a loan. What are some bad times to get a loan?1. When you can’t afford a vacation.We all need a vacation sometimes. It’d be nice to be able to go on whatever vacation you’d like, but there is not currently some sort of “federal vacation program” to provide for those who can’t afford their ideal vacation.Until that legislation is approved, however, you may have to put some severe limits on the kind of vacations you take. And using a loan to pay for a vacation is never a good idea.“Loans should not be used for expenses,” warned Sanchez. “Meaning, you shouldnt use credit cards (without expecting to pay it off within the month to avoid interest charges) or personal loans to finance a big vacation.In doing so, youd be clearly spending above your means and paying high-interest charges for holding a loan of th at nature for a period of time.”2. For regular bills.Ideally, you’d only take out a loan as an investment in the hope that it’ll bring greater returns one day. But unfortunate surprises happen. If you have an unexpected medical expense or your car suddenly breaks down, you may find that a personal loan is your only way to cover the expense.If that is the case, you’ll want to research all of your possible options to find the ideal, most affordable loan for your situation. The right loan with the right payment schedule can allow you to get through this setback in the best position possible.However, if you’re finding yourself taking out a loan or even considering taking out a loan to pay recurring expenses, like groceries, rent, or utilities, then there’s a pretty significant problem afoot.There are many expenses you can’t cut down on, but if you’re taking out loans for recurring expenses, you’ll just be getting further and further in the financial hole. Ask for help from a friend or family member if you have one or consider seeking out government assistance.You probably already knew that taking out loans regularly is bad for your financial health, but just in case, now you know.3. If you don’t have a plan to pay it back.You should always make sure you have a payment plan before taking out any loanâ€"whether its a mortgage, an auto loan, or a regular unsecured installment loan.However, it might be tough in an emergency situation when you feel like you just need to get the cash as quickly as possible. And thats doubly true if you dont have good credit and your only options to borrow money are bad credit loans.But taking a few extra steps in the short term can you leave you much better off in the long term.“It is not a good time to get a loan if you don’t have a solid plan to pay back the loan,” advised Jaquetta T. Ragland, owner of YoungandFinance.com (@YoungandFinance). “Some people apply for a loan because they meet the qualifications but they have no plan in place to pay it back.This is dangerous because it can cause you to fall behind in your payments which will have a negative impact on your credit score because of missed payments. In addition, it could cause an increase in your interest rate which will also raise your monthly payment requirement.If you don’t have a solid plan in place to pay back the loan, it is not a good time to have one.”4. If your credit needs improvement.You can’t predict when the aforementioned financial emergency might happen. But if you can avoid taking out a loan when your credit needs improvement, you’ll be better off.“You should also NOT get a loan if you dont have good credit,” explained Jennifer Harder (@JenniferHarder4), Founder CEO of Jennifer Harder Mortgage Brokers. “If you want a personal loan that has a better interest rate than a credit card, youll have to have some strong credit history.”In order to avoid taking out an online loan or visiting a brick-and -mortar storefront to cover costs during a financial emergency, youll need to have a well-stocked emergency fund in place.That way you can steer of high-cost  no credit check loans (like payday loans, cash advances, and title loans) and cover those bills with money you already haveâ€"interest-free!5. When a credit card could work.Used improperly, credit cards can get you in a lot of trouble. But used properly, and paid off in full every month, they can be very useful tools that can help build your credit.“With a strong credit score you can qualify for a zero percent APR credit card that meets the needs of your loan amount,” offered Jared Weitz (@jaredweitz), CEO and Founder of United Capital Source Inc. “Although many loans can have strong interest rates, nothing beats zero percent.If your finances are already very unstable, and you have reason to believe your income or employment situation may change in the near future, taking out a loan when finances are unsteady can hurt yo u long term if it becomes not possible to repay on time and you let the interest rise.”When it comes to getting a loan, it’s all in the timing. And we hope these tips will help with yours. To learn more about how best to manage your finances, check out these other posts and articles from OppLoans:How to Raise Your Credit Score by 100 PointsSave More Money with These 40 Expert TipsBuilding Your Financial Life: Budgeting for Beginners8 Good Habits to Get Your Financesâ€"and Your Lifeâ€"on TrackDo you have a personal finance question youd like us to answer? Let us know! You can find us  on  Facebook  and  Twitter.  |  InstagramContributorsJennifer Harder (@JenniferHarder4) is a mortgage broker with over 30 years of management and sales experience. Throughout her mortgage career, Jennifer has helped hundreds of clients solve their financial challenges. Her motto is to focus on the clients needs above all else.Jaquetta T Ragland is the owner of  YoungandFinance.com (@YoungandFinance)  and is also a licensed real estate agent. She teaches personal finance education to empower individuals to make the right financial decisions in their lives.Levi Sanchez is a CERTIFIED FINANCIAL PLANNER, BEHAVIORAL FINANCIAL ADVISOR and Founder of  Millennial Wealth, LLC (@millennialwlth), a fee-only financial planning firm for young professionals and tech industry employees. Levi’s been quoted in the New York Times, Business Insider, Forbes, and is a frequent contributor to Investopedia. He is an avid sports fan, personal finance and investing geek, and enjoys a great TV show or movie. His mission is to help educate his generation about better money habits and provide financial planning services to those who want to start planning for their future today!Jared Weitz  (@jaredweitz)  has been in the financial services industry for over 10 years. Due to his extensive work experience and deep network of close financial relationships, he handles a multitude of different finance optio ns for his clients and contacts. Over the years, he has held positions in some of the largest business financing companies in the U.S. Some of his roles have been: Underwriter, Director of Business Development, Managing Partner and currently, CEO of  United Capital Source, LLC.

The Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of...

Attempts to stop fraud were enhanced under Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). The purpose was to improve the Medicare program under title XVIII of the Social Security Act, the Medicaid program under title XIX of such Act, and the efficiency and effectiveness of the health care system. This public law encouraged the development of a health information system through standards and requirements for the electronic transmission of certain health information (aspe.hhs.go). The Act established a program to take action against fraud committed against public and private health plans. The legislation required the establishment of a national Health Care Fraud and Abuse Control Program (HCFAC), under the joint direction of the Attorney General and the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) acting through the Department s Inspector General (HHS.gov). The HCFAC program is designed to coordinate Federal, State and loc al law enforcement activities with respect to health care fraud and abuse. The Act requires HHS and Department of Justice (DOJ) detail in an Annual Report the amounts deposited and appropriated to the Medicare Trust Fund, and the source of such deposits. (HHS.gov) I will summarize the impact of these laws as it pertains to how they are impacting the healthcare delivery system. (HHS.gov) Fraud and Abuse Medicare fraud and abuse happens when physicians and doctors do not follow good medicalShow MoreRelatedHipaa Or Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996983 Words   |  4 Pages HIPAA or Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 is a set of laws aimed to protect people from losing their health insurance coverage during change or loss of employment, to control health care fraud and abuse, and to maintain patient`s health information and/or status confidential. The origins of HIPAA go as far back as the 1990 when medical records were suggested to become computerized, management of health care records was questioned and portability of health insurance becameRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1319 Words   |  6 Pagesinformation security within Healthcare: †¢ Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) †¢ Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act of 2009, †¢ Affordable Care Act of 2010 2. Review and describe each regulation in your own words in minimum 1000 words. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) HIPAA, the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability act was signed into law in 1996 by President Clinton. The regulationRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1685 Words   |  7 PagesOffice of Civil Rights (OCR) maintains one of the most well-known laws meant to protect the privacy of health information - the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). HIPAA is composed of statute and rules such as the Privacy Rule, Security Rule, Breach Notification Rule, and others. These rules cover various aspects of health information security. 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A woman called a local hospital and inquired about the condition of a patient. She was informed by the nurse that the patient was on a ventilator and couldRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act1438 Words   |  6 Pagestype of power you can bet that the country would be corrupt. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act is there to prevent such events happening. HIPAA, or Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, was implemented to help serve the people and keep information safe. Originally it started out as a way to ensure that Americans going between jobs would still be covered by their insurance companies. Since then the act has came a long way in protecting the American citizens. It preventedRead MoreEssay On Public Need For Health Care1023 Words   |  5 Pages Public Need for the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act was signed into a federal law in 1996. During the early 1990’s there was a public need to alter the way that medical records were discussed between insurance, doctors and patients. Prior to the advancement of computers into the medical world, the industry was mainly paper records that were written and stored in file rooms. Only people who were authorized could get toRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 19961022 Words   |  5 Pagessectors of health care, managed care arrangements, integrated service networks, or community agencies. To be an effective manager, it is important to understand the legal and ethical principles that are included in this environment and the legal relationship between consumer and the organization. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, also known as HIPAA, was created to prevent the unauthorized release of patient information. The Office for Civil Rights enforces the HIPAA PrivacyRead MoreHunger-Free Kids Act of 2010709 Words   |  3 PagesMatrix Health Care Law Hunger-free Kids Act of 2010 Describe the health care law (75 to 150 words) The Hunger-free kids act is a nutrition program that provides all children with healthy food in school and to low income families. Because of this act schools are playing a larger role in children’s health. Included in this legislation other programs that focus on hunger has come into play such as: Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Woman, Infants and Children (WIC), Child and Adult The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of... The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) affects every aspect of health care from patient privacy to insurance coverage. The federal act was first passed in 1996, yet the first major rule did not go into effect until 2003, protecting patient privacy. HIPAA ultimately came into effect due to the issues regarding patient privacy, security and coverage. Another major concern for both health care workers and the public was the exchange of patient information from one facility to another. Until the relatively recent decision to enforce HIPAA, a patient’s medical record was primarily recorded and maintained on paper and stored in locked cabinets or drawers. Not only was this method inefficient, but patients†¦show more content†¦They have a choice to be able to access and view all their records and obtain their medical records. A patient also has the right to amend their protected health information. They must submit the change into writ ing and the form is available online. The fourth right states that a patient has the right to see a list of who their records have been disclosed to. Records can be sent to many different offices, including other doctors and different insurance companies. A patient has the right to ask that their protected health information may be communicated in a special way. For example, a patient can request that health related messages not be left on their voicemail or answering machine. The last right is that a patient has the right to complain if their rights have been violated. They are able to go online and submit a claim that states how their rights have been violated. In efforts to strengthen HIPAA compliance, audits are being performed more frequently (Solove, 2013). In order to improve compliance among healthcare-related facilities and companies, it is suggested that they adhere to risk assessments, continue security incident planning, enhance employee training, and continue updating security and privacy policies and procedures (Solove, 2013). It was reported in 2013 that 52% of patient information breaches were due to data theft, with this increasing number of privacy incidents compliance must continue to beShow MoreRelatedThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 19961781 Words   |  8 PagesThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 was legislation enacted with a dual purpose: to assure the insurability of more Americans, and protect them from demographics and medical treatment information being accessible to too many individuals and entities, specifically those who do not have necessity to know. The Insurance Portability portion essentially reduced the impact pre-existing conditions have on obtaining health insurance. The law drastically limits when an insuranceRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 19961022 Words   |  5 Pageshealthcare. They find themselves in the private, public, or non-profit sectors of health care, managed care arrangements, integrated service networks, or community agencies. To be an effective manager, it is important to understand the legal and ethical principles that are included in this environment and the legal relationship between consumer and the organization. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, also known as HIPAA, was created to prevent the unauthorized release of patientRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 19962025 Words   |  9 PagesHIPPA? The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 amends the Internal Revenue Service Code of 1986. The Administrative Simplification section of this act that has a pervasive effect on health plans, billing agencies, information systems vendors, and other providers. Within the provisions of this section, HIPAA requires improved efficiency in healthcare delivery by standardized in electronic data interchange (EDI) and protection of confidentiality and security of health data throughRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 19961492 Words   |  6 Pagesindustry professional are reminded of HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996) and the important role it plays in daily task. Every patient is protected under HIPAA there really is never an time that HIPAA does not apply to health information. The expectation to protecting private health information under HIPAA is within the school districts in the communities. The school districts records that contain students private health information does not fall under HIPAA regulationsRead Mor eHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1319 Words   |  6 Pagesinformation security within Healthcare: †¢ Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) †¢ Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act of 2009, †¢ Affordable Care Act of 2010 2. Review and describe each regulation in your own words in minimum 1000 words. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) HIPAA, the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability act was signed into law in 1996 by President Clinton. The regulationRead MoreHipaa Or Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996983 Words   |  4 PagesHIPAA or Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 is a set of laws aimed to protect people from losing their health insurance coverage during change or loss of employment, to control health care fraud and abuse, and to maintain patient`s health information and/or status confidential. The origins of HIPAA go as far back as the 1990 when medical records were suggested to become computerized, management of health care records was questioned and portability of health insurance becameRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1685 Words   |  7 Pages For instance, the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) maintains one of the most well-known laws meant to protect the privacy of health information - the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). HIPAA is composed of statute and rules such as the Privacy Rule, Security Rule, Breach Notification Rule, and others. These rules cover various aspects of health information security. For example, â€Å"the HIPAA Security Rule specifies a series of administrative, physical, and technical safeguardsRead MoreThe Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1686 Words   |  7 PagesLaw 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). The purpose was to improve the Medicare program under title XVIII of the Social Security Act, the Medicaid program under title XIX of such Act, and the efficiency and effectiveness of the health care system. This public law encouraged the development of a health information system through standards and requirements for the electronic transmission of certain health information (aspe.hhs.go). The Act established a programRead MoreT he Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act Of 1996 ( Hipaa )1806 Words   |  8 PagesHIPPA and Information Management Introduction The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) was passed to protect patients, it offer the following benefits (a) enables the patient to find out how their health records can be used, (b) limits the release of personnel health records, (c) patients have the opportunity to receive a copy of their health records, and (d) gives the patient the authority to control if their information will be disclosed to a third party. UnderRead MoreWhat Is The Health Insurance Portability And Accountability Act860 Words   |  4 PagesHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act HIPAA is the acronym for the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act that was passed by Congress in 1996, Federal law that restricts access to individuals private medical information: The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. . HIPAA does the following: Provides the ability to transfer and continue health insurance coverage

The Gestalt, Behavioral, Cognitive Behavior And Reality...

The purpose of this paper is to identify how the Gestalt, Behavior, Cognitive Behavior and Reality therapies will be applicable to the future population we want to work with. The differences and similarities teach us the uniqueness of each as well as how their information correlates to one another. PTSD is probably going to be a major disorder I will come across when working with veterans and the cognitive behavioral approach was the most influential, but also most empirically researched approach dealing with this disorder. This paper provided a wealth of information on the applicability to future use and also get a reference as to which approaches seem most suitable to our own counseling style. These past two weeks we have covered some great theories based on psychotherapy, and the many approaches to each. The theorist that will be discussed in this paper include, Gestalt, Behavioral, Cognitive Behavior and Reality Therapy. These approaches to counseling have offered us very similar and contrasting perspectives on the various concepts of psychotherapy. What I found very interesting was that some of these focused on the present/future and have little regard to the person s past. Many of these theories also have concepts which have similar techniques as others we have covered but some are more specific to certain disorders, which makes things very interesting. Applications My future goal is to work with veterans and be able to help them cope with issuesShow MoreRelatedWhat I Think About Behavioral Therapy938 Words   |  4 Pages Behavioral therapy can be used in a variety of psychological disorders, which makes it ideal for many therapist. What I liked most about this theory and feel that will be something I would use was, assertion training. Many people that we come across lack the confidence to excel because they lack ways to express themselves and by utilizing this technique, they will be able to replace maladaptive social skills with new skills(Corey, 2013, pg. 264). This technique is very universal and can be usedRead MoreEssay about Group Therapy Theory Comparison1475 Words   |  6 Pagesmay often begin to consider leading a group therapy session. Group therapy is a form of therapy in which a therapist either treats or provides psychoeducational skills to a small, carefully planned target group of individuals in an effort to ameliorate the issues and dysfunctions of each individual in that particular group of patients together (Scheidlinger, 2004). In this group, therapists often utilize some of the psychotherapy theories such as Gestalt, transactional analysis, psychotherapy or psychodramaRead MoreThe Theoretical Frameworks I Most Relate To Are Holistic1101 Words   |  5 PagesThe theoretical frameworks I most relate to are Holistic therapy, Cognitive Behavioral therapy, and Gestalt therapy. I intend to blend elements from multiple therapeutic approaches so that I may benefit my clients in the best way possible. Dated back to the era of Hippocrates, the holistic method has focused on improving the wellbeing and mental wellness of individuals. Holistic therapy emphasizes the significance of being balanced and whole. The role of the Holistic counselor is to assist the clientRead MoreTheories and Models Essay767 Words   |  4 PagesReference Reality Therapy Emphases on treating inappropriate behavior by improving relationships with world around them. The client is to form a plan and practice actions that offer a solution to their behavioral issues for present and future references. Created by William Glosser who alleged that inappropriate behavior is something that needs to be address rather than excused because of past occurrences. Behavior Therapy Focuses solely on how a person’s emotions effect their behavior. It is theRead MoreIn Reality Therapy The Environment Or797 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ In reality therapy, the environment or counseling or psychotherapeutic atmosphere includes which of the following? Answer Selected Answer:   d.   All of the above Correct Answer:   d.   All of the above Question 2 2 out of 2 points DBT was initially developed to treat: Answer Selected Answer:   d.   Borderline personality disorder Correct Answer:   d.   Borderline personality disorder Question 3 2 out of 2 points The developer of dialectical behavior therapy is: Answer Selected Answer:Read MoreReflection Paper Of Trina Patel1306 Words   |  6 Pages Reflection Paper of Trina Patel Watson Calixte University of Bridgeport Demographics My persona’s name is Trina Patel. She is a 42 year old, Indian American woman who is quite amazed to be going through therapy at this point of her life. A brief history about Trina is that she was adopted at the age of five having no recollection of her birth parents. Her adopted parents, the Johnson’s, were Christians; Baptist to be exact. They raised Trina along theirRead MoreThe Therapeutic Approaches That Shaped And Molded A Client Essay1102 Words   |  5 Pageswe’ll look at Fritz Perls doing his demanding total authenticity, Gestalt Therapy. (This was developed with his wife, Laura, making it the only female authorship generations.) Then, is Albert Ellis with his ideas on thinking about things that make you unhappy, Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy. Last of all, we will thoroughly examine which of the two therapeutic technique actually worked best for Gloria. As learned in class, Gestalt Therapy is an existential/experiential form of psychotherapy that emphasizesRead MoreExploring Cognitive Behavior Theory And Therapy897 Words   |  4 PagesExploring Cognitive Behavior Theory and Therapy From the time of the advent of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and therapy until now, psychologists have searched for new and better ways to both understand and treat the human psyche. Many psychologists have spent their lives analyzing the complexities of human thought, behavior, and interactions with societal influences in order to find new ways to guide humans towards a more fulfilling human experience. Throughout time, various theories andRead MorePsychology Is The Study Of Human Behavior1447 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology is the study of human behavior. It is a field that focuses on the human mind, which is a varied landscape of thought and thought processes. When considering the process of studying the field of psychology as a whole there are a great number of avenues to explore the mind. There are different types of psychology, both normal and abnormal as the overarching distinctions. There are also many disorders associated with abnormal behavior psychology such as schizophrenia, anxiety disordersRead MoreAnimal Assisted Therapy : An Old Form Of Therapy940 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal-assisted therapy is an old form of therapy. It has been used in various ways dating back to 1792 when it was used to help patients in the York Center, a mental hospital, learn to care for animals (Janssen). There have been numerous studies that test it’s value since, and a majority of studies have stated that it has positive effects for people. Within animal-assisted therapy (AAT), there are different aspects of therapy that animals can enhance or provide. Animals assist therapy by making therapy sessions

Night Creature Crescent Moon Chapter 6 Free Essays

The tinkling of the shop bell interrupted our conversation. â€Å"Excuse me,† Cassandra said. â€Å"I need to go anyway. We will write a custom essay sample on Night Creature: Crescent Moon Chapter 6 or any similar topic only for you Order Now † I tried to return the gris-gris, but she wouldn’t take it. â€Å"That’s for you.† â€Å"I don’t think so.† â€Å"It’ll protect you against the mojo from the flower.† â€Å"Sure it will.† She tilted her head. â€Å"What can it hurt?† â€Å"Depends on what you put in here. Bats’ wings? Puppy dog tails? I’m allergic.† Cassandra laughed. â€Å"Nothing so ominous. Some herbs, red pepper. Dust from the grave of a believer.† I made a face. â€Å"Kidding,† she said. â€Å"I also put in a little something to keep the beasts of the swamp away.† â€Å"Right. That oughta work.† Along with a gun and a baseball bat. â€Å"If you’re going to be working in the swamp, I doubt you’ll want the alligators hanging around.† I shoved the gris-gris into my pocket. â€Å"In the old days, people placed charms in their left shoes,† Cassandra continued, â€Å"but the old days are the reason a lot of folks wound up lame.† â€Å"I can’t imagine why.† â€Å"Just keep the gris-gris on you by day and under your pillow by night. Make sure you take it out before the maid sees. Some tend to get a little freaked if they find them.† I couldn’t tell if she was teasing or not. Probably not. â€Å"Let me know how things work out,† she said. â€Å"I enjoyed talking to you.† I’d enjoyed talking to her, too. I didn’t have many friends. Hell, I didn’t have any. Once I’d found Simon, I’d let the few I had drift away. I was in a bizarre profession, which didn’t lend itself to camaraderie. I disappeared at the ring of the phone, never knew when I’d come back, forgot lunch dates, could care less about movies. And the other cryptozoologists†¦ Well, they’d as soon steal your Loch Ness Monster as look at you. Arriving back at the hotel, I discovered the maid had cleaned my room and departed. I dropped my clothes on the floor, left a request for a wake-up call for an hour before dusk, then shoved the gris-gris beneath my pillow. After the dream I’d had last night†¦ Well, as Cassandra said – couldn’t hurt. I slept like the dead, waking with a yelp when the phone shrilled next to my ear. A recorded voice reminded me of my wake-up call. No gifts on the bed. My gris-gris was right where I’d left it. Yay. I got dressed, pocketed the charm, grabbed my camera, my cell phone, and a tote bag to put them in, then went to meet Charlie. He was waiting when I pulled up at the dock. The sun cast orange rays through the trees and across his face. I blinked. For an instant the light had taken on the shade of fresh blood. I pushed aside the disturbing thought. I was the moon goddess, not a prophet, if I believed Cassandra’s name-dropping. But what did a moon goddess do? I probably didn’t want to know. The gris-gris weighed heavily in my pocket, and I was tempted to throw the talisman into the drink. But I didn’t want Charlie to see it. The way he’d behaved this afternoon at the mansion, anything weird might spook him away for good. â€Å"Ready?† he asked. In lieu of an answer, I climbed into the boat, and we headed off. Night settled over us like a cool velvet curtain. The stars came out, and the crescent moon rose. Charlie turned on the spotlight attached to the front of the boat, and I stared, transfixed, at what seemed like a hundred shining orbs in the water. â€Å"Gators,† he said. â€Å"They like the dark.† In the daytime it was easy to believe the alligators were slow and unthreatening. Not very many of them out here at all. But in the night, surrounded by their glowing eyes, every one of which seemed to stare directly at me, they seemed very threatening indeed. I longed to be back on solid ground. â€Å"Where are we going?† I asked. â€Å"Thought you wanted to see the place where the body was found.† â€Å"I do.† Charlie pointed straight ahead. â€Å"Right there.† â€Å"Who discovered it?† â€Å"Me.† â€Å"You?† I stared at him incredulously. â€Å"You said you hadn’t seen the wolf.† â€Å"Friend of mine did.† â€Å"So it didn’t necessarily kill the man.† â€Å"Guy’s throat was torn. Paw prints all around him.† â€Å"Not a coyote?† â€Å"Coyotes are scavengers and cowards. They wouldn’t kill a man.† â€Å"Neither would a wolf.† Charlie shrugged. â€Å"Me and my friend was huntin’ nutrias, found the body. I stayed, while he looked around. Said he saw a wolf disappearing into the tall grass.† â€Å"He’s sure he saw a wolf?† â€Å"Huge, black, big head, long legs. He shot it, but the thing disappeared.† â€Å"He’s sure he hit something?† â€Å"Found a bit of blood. Nothin’else.† : â€Å"Isn’t it illegal to shoot a wolf ?† The species was still endangered in some areas, threatened or protected in others, though their numbers had increased sufficiently in a few northern states for them to be delisted. In other words, wolves could be killed by certain people with good cause, not by any old person whenever they felt like it. â€Å"No law around here like that,† Charlie said. â€Å"Ain’t no wolves.† I went silent, thinking, as Charlie pointed the boat at the shore. â€Å"I’d like to get a peek at that body.† I didn’t realize I’d spoken out loud until Charlie an- swered. â€Å"Already in the crypt, I’m sure.† â€Å"Crypt?† â€Å"Whole city’s below sea level.† Ah, the singular burial practices of New Orleans. While I wasn’t an expert, I had read an entire guidebook that I’d bought at O’Hare before getting on the plane. For hundreds of years, citizens of the Crescent City stacked their dead on shelves inside brick monuments known as ovens. After a year and a day, the body was decomposed enough to dump into a well with all the others who had gone before, making room for the next entrant on the assembly line of death. Most people choose to be buried in a family crypt. Better to spend eternity mixed with Gramma than the psycho next door. I was pulled from my thoughts when the boat bumped against the embankment. â€Å"You stay here,† Charlie said. â€Å"I’m gonna clear the gators out of the way.† â€Å"Swell.† I contemplated the staring eyes. â€Å"What if one of them wants to climb aboard?† My hand crept to the pocket that held my gris-gris. I sure hoped the thing worked, and wasn’t that a change in attitude? â€Å"I doubt they could, but – † He leaned over, flicked the catch on the cabinet beneath his seat, and pulled out a handgun. â€Å"There ye go.† Picking up a bat, he strode into the night. The weight of the gun felt good in my hand. Not only had I taken self-defense classes, but I’d learned how to fire both a rifle and a handgun. I wasn’t half-bad. Water lapped against the boat in a rhythm that would have been peaceful if it weren’t for the bobbing army of eyes. I began to feel chilled, and it wasn’t lack of the sun. Something was watching me again. I glanced at the tributary. A lot of somethings. A rustle from the bank made me start. â€Å"Charlie?† I waited, but Charlie didn’t appear. â€Å"Charlie?† I called a little louder, startling the alligators that had swum in close. The brush seemed to be waving in a nonexistent breeze. I crept to the front of the boat and shifted the spotlight. The glare blazed across the top of the grass, splashed off the crooked limbs of the cypress trees, and revealed an indentation in the flora, as if a large body was moving steadily toward†¦ â€Å"Charlie!† His answer was a scream, a gurgle, then silence. I jumped out of the boat, not even thinking about the alligators, not even caring. At least I remembered the gun. The spotlight lit my way as I headed in the direction of the scream. Charlie must have gotten rid of all the alligators in the vicinity, unless they’d smelled my gris- ; gris, or maybe they’d slithered back into the water to avoid†¦ Whatever the hell had come after Charlie. I paused, listened, caught a faint rumble to my left Tightening my fingers around the gun, I barreled through the overgrowth, shouting Charlie’s name. Some animals will run if you startle them. Then again, some won’t I’d come far enough that the light from the boat was fading. When I burst through a tangle of weeds and into a small clearing, I had to squint to see. Or maybe I just had to squint because I couldn’t believe my eyes. Charlie was on the ground. Dead from the appearance of the throat wound. A man knelt next to him, fingers pressed to Charlie’s neck. At first I thought he’d been attacked, too. Blood all over a bare chest will give that impression. But with that much blood, I should see a gap, a tear, a great big hole. He definitely shouldn’t have been able to stand, to move, to walk toward me. I panicked and lifted the gun. â€Å"Stop.† My voice sounded thick, as if I were speaking through swamp water. The man kept coming – fast – his long, dark hair flying around his face, giving me tantalizing glimpses of a nose, a chin, teeth. He snatched the pistol, and the bronze bracelet on his wrist shimmered as he tossed the weapon aside. I’d never flicked off the safety, but he didn’t know that. Then he shook back his hair, and I couldn’t think beyond the sight of the face I’d seen twice – in the picture on the wall of the Ruelle Mansion and in my erotic dream of the night before. â€Å"You’re – â€Å" I meant to say dead, but the word froze on my tongue when he grabbed me. Solid, warm, real. He wasn’t a ghost. So what in hell was he? How to cite Night Creature: Crescent Moon Chapter 6, Essay examples

Health Economics and Comparative Systems-myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theHealth Economics and Comparative Systems. Answer: Introduction Health economics is an applied field of study which is well equipped with standard economics strategies and application of theories to enable the economy of a particular state or country to grow. Through health economics and comparative health systems, we get means by which different countries use to embrace and provide an improved modified and a reformed health systems (Collins et al, 2009) .Most of the countries are evolving drastically in order to create a balance in economic growth within countries with an aim of offering better health economics services to the individuals. Consider a country like Australia, having NWS health systems is because of studying on good health care providers, clinics and hospitals, management strategies and promoting public health activities .For better health economical systems, health economists employs several economic theories of competition, production, efficiency and many other to inform the public and the private sector the best way to operate and provide a least cost effective processes to offer services (Liaw et al, 2017). Health economics creates a channel where some predictions can be made involving several research for evaluation of latest technologies and also creating enhancement when it comes to strategic behaviours with an aim of optimum investment in both public and private sectors. Economic health strategies and delivery are commonly used in the current world as its the easiest approach to attain more investments leading to economic growth through infrastructures, creation of jobs, poverty eradication and keeping the gross domestic product optimal. The NWS Health is one of the leading health systems that has led to massive economic health peak creating a clear path to investments. In NWS stable economic health has created good foundations to economic growth by having a stable government, full employments, effective trading strategies, agricultural productions and many other more thus having a health economics (Independent Hospital Pricing Authority, 2014). Having a higher gross per capital income thats an indication of a health economics .Health systems which are effective allows a country to automatically have a healthy economy through several ways which includes; Ensuring the country got no social problems which may lead to market failures and inappropriate allocation of resources, this will help by making sure the money market and labour market operations are running smoothly hence health economics. Creation of bonds between firm organizations and the government in order to stimulate wealth creation to each and every household in the country. The government plays a big role in ensuring there are best course of action regards to regulations, issuing of national economic health programmes and economic health insurance covers to promote steady flow of investment in the country (Health Workforce Australia, 2013). Having low interest cost is one of the economic strategy most economies in different countries has adopted to enable more individuals to acquire loans from the banks and other lending firms to promote more investments also leading to a healthy economy. Coming up with education packages has led to improvising of skilled labour and also empowering individuals with knowledge on how to deal with different types of investments and also having an open mind to create business ideas hence creating job opportunities making the country to have a healthy economy. Creation of better health facilities whereby ensuring households regardless of wealth status attains better health services to have a well investment distribution country wide (Food and Health Bureau, 2012).This will keep each household on toes to increase his income allowing room for infrastructure since when human diseases are eradicated in the economy the optimum yields is always high. Applications of the latest technologies has been a major key to health economics as handling of things has become easy and cheap creating efficient communications ,easy to make transactions ,easy to acquire a specific information ,ease in record keepings hence making the management to be less tiresome leading to a healthy economy. Promoting health economics through comparative health systems there is occurrence several limitations and short comes that hinder or creates a barrier to attain a health economics .In most developed countries in order to achieve a healthy economy they had their own ways to fight or reduce the limitations which could come their ways as challenges must be there (Edwards, 2012). Some of the shortcomings and limitations that hinders health economics includes; Corruption is one the short come that hinders a lot of operations to take place .In health systems we find there are some parties with a bias health economics status that lead a lot of drawbacks to the economy Pollution is another limitation since when there is competitions to attain a health economic due to pressure in the markets the means to optimum productivity leads to may be air, water and noise pollution becoming a serious hindrance to the safety means of production. Allocation of resources in way that the input cost is made minimum to yield maximum production becomes a key problem in most of developing countries .This create losses in some of the investments in the country leading to depreciation in health economics (Finkler et al, 2013). Lack of financial aids, open to the latest technology and illiteracy among the households are some of limitations to health economic systems. Health economics is thus attainable by laying well structure management strategies and by having clearly stated objectives to run a productivity health system. Some theories such as Structural-change theory enables the health systems to catch up with modern facilities in order to acquire a healthy economy within a short time (Duckett, 2013). Linear-stages-of-growth model whereby in order to encourage investment to health economic the health systems should focus on accumulation of capital through utilization of both domestic and international savings .The theory of Economic nationalism also tells us about the importance of wide investments widely across the country to increase productivity to a more output hence an increase in government revenue and per capital income to the households. Conclusion As I conclude my report, health economics through comparative health systems is only achievable through critical investments involving particularly each and every individual in a country (WHO, 2010) .NSW is one of the examples healthy system that has led to a healthy economy under well laid management strategies.

English Essays (203 words) - Obesity, Human Weight, Nutrition

More and more people are becoming seriously overweight. Some people say that the price increase of fattening foods will solve this problem. To what extent do you agree or disagree? -become seriously overweight= fat (adj)= gain excessive weight (too much) (v)= make sb plum= grow fat -the price increase (n)= increasing/accelerating price (cost) -> (adj) pricey, expensive, costly-> (v) cost/ pay -fattening foods= fatty/greasy food= fat-rich food= food rich in fat= high-fat food (# low-fat, fat-free, non-fat) -solve this problem= tackle= address= deal with partly agree 1.the accelerating prices of fattening foods: cut down on the number of consumers -not afford expensive high fat food-> not consume or consume (eat, take in) less -> the proportion of overweight people- fall. e.g. -> only not attack the root of the problem-> need supplementary measures. 2. other solutions: - set a limit of fat amount in food-> fail to gain weight - restrict fast food stalls: not allowed on campus -> not put schoolchildren at risk of obesity. - conduct public education: raise awareness of the downsides of fatty foodstuff and weight gaining. -> combination of different methods.

A essays

A essays A Friend With Multiple Personalities The variance in personalities can be as massive as an ocean or as microscopic as an atom. Most people think of personalities as distinctive. I have found distinctive does not necessarily describe personalities. Renee is a friend of mine who has a very wide variance in personality. Renees personality can change within a matter of minutes. She calls me daily with a seemingly innocent conversation. The conversation always starts with simple inquires about the general health of family and friends. Suddenly, as if possessed by some demonic force, she will insult other people that we both know. She says things that I personally know to be untrue. When I try to point out what she is doing, she turns her anger toward me. At any point during a telephone conversation, she can exhibit any one of three different personality aspects. Each of these personality aspects demonstrates individual distinctions. One person can have multiple personalities. In fact, my friend has three aspect s of her personality. The three are the friend forever, the crybaby, and the rattlesnake personalities. The "friend forever" personality is the one with which I am most familiar. When she displays this personality, she concerns herself with others, she is willing to help out, and she always has a dry shoulder to loan for crying. Renee so easily fits into this category. Most days, she is a very loving and caring individual. She concerns herself with the welfare of others. While in this personality, Renee goes out of her way to call and inquire about the health of others. She offers her help in any situation. She may not be physically able to change a flat tire for a person, but she will hold the light so the person can see how to change the tire for themself. Renee always has a dry shoulder on which someone can cry without invitation. She will listen to a friend's problem for ...

Analyzing a Job Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyzing a Job - Essay Example These descriptions are formulated by the human resource department of the company; they are arrived at after the workforce requirements are comprehensively scrutinized since the description would give the type of applicants that the firm would receive. A part from mere undertakings and the technical skills that are of relevance in undertaking these responsibilities, the details should include such personal features that would ease the process of one holding the position. In this manner, the firm ensures that the employees it eventually hires would be of the traits that would be easy to effectively manage (Thomas & Michael, 2001). A New York hospitality firm, Travel care company Limited, has for the past three years operated in the American market offering such services in hotel booking, flight ticketing, car rental and hiring . The company has decided to venture into the tour industry for the first time. The firm is, therefore, diversifying its services and is expanding to other cities in America as well. Their first destination following this diversification is the city of Los Angels. A number of new positions have, as a result, been created and the firm aims to hire several of these within the five weeks preceding the formal opening of the Los Angel’s offices. Following the planned diversification of the firm, two fundamental departments have been created and would thus require staffing. It is with that effect that this memo seeks validity. The firm will be seeking to employ twenty five drivers and tour guides of similar number. The individuals will be responding to the head of department on tourism from which orders and terms of daily engagements will be communicated on daily basis. They will be tasked with the mandate of taking the tourists on safaris. Their main task will be to ensure that the tourists receive

Newspapers Yesterday's Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Newspapers Yesterday's - Essay Example It has been well documented that in 1901, there were more than 20 capital city newspapers in Australia, with almost as many individual owners. Today there are no more than a dozen metro dailies, and just four major proprietors. The last two decade has seen a drastic decline in the average daily circulation of newspapers which has dropped by almost a quarter. Average daily newspaper circulation has fallen by almost a quarter in the last 20 years. Nevertheless, the decline of head to head daily newspaper competition does not mask intense competition for the time, money and attention of readers and potential readers and newspapers thus still remain an important source of news. The newspaper business's long-term, seemingly inexorable decline is an old story that is hardly fodder for stop-the-presses, page-one play anymore. The industry has faced declining circulation, job losses and falling stock prices which markedly underscores the transformation sweeping the industry. Newspapers have two big strikes against them: They are in a mature industry (the first regularly published newspaper came out some 400 years ago in Europe) and they are a textbook example (stockbrokers are another) of an intermediary between sources of information and customers - a role that is being increasingly challenged by the Internet. Scholars predict that in the coming years, daily newspapers will have to strengthen their efforts to attract younger readers, make more imaginative use of the Internet, and develop stories, mostly local in nature, that better meet the needs of readers who have thousands of news and information sources at their fingertips. Professor Peter S. Fader hopes that people will continue to buy physical newspapers in large numbers in years to come. He compares the Internet's assault on newspapers to the impact that digital downloading of music has had on compact discs: CD's still have appeal but they are no longer the sole, dominant medium they once were. "I still believe that there's a vital role for non-digital content in music," Fader suggests. "There's a lot to be said for owning a CD and putting it on the shelf and holding it in your hand. Some people say that same thing about newspapers. It may be true, but newspapers are transient and have no archive value. They are not a collector's item rather; they are a nuisance to deal with. Newspapers have adapted and thrived during decades of competition from emerging media but are now faced with a more intense level of competition from the Internet and cable television news. To say the newspaper industry is heading towards a decline is correct because circulation has indeed dropped in the aggregate, but most dailies still remain quite profitable. Newspapers are not headed for extinction by the end of the decade as some commentary has implied. Classified advertising has been the largest revenue stream for newspapers and this can be delivered much more cost effectively. By the time readers get their papers, they pretty much know the news, and newspapers have already been beaten by TV, radio and bloggers. As a

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography

Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography Introduction During the 25 years since the publication of Writing Culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography, a great deal of discussion has accompanied it. In this essay I place this book in the context of the literary turn in anthropology, and concern with the postcolonial encounter as well. Throughout the analysis of the main themes in the book, attention is paid to the construction of ethnographic authority and two relationships of ethnographer/reader and ethnographer/informant centered in Writing Culture. The essay also provides a perspective of the influential power of the book by presenting some ethnographies conducted by Chinese anthropologists. Finally, I will argue the risks of the textualism trend and different patterns in Writing Culture approach. Background of the Book: In and Beyond Anthropology More than ten years after the publication of Writing Culture, in a review article, George Marcus (1998:5) quoted Schneiders words referring to the book: I dont think Jim Clifford is famous for his monograph on Leenhardt. I dont think that George Marcus has achieved some notoriety because he worked on Tonga. Indeed, I dont know anybody whos read the ethnography he wrote. In fact, Ive often talked to people and asked them, Hay, have you read George Marcuss ethnography? No!-but I read that other damn book. It is a very typical and interesting comment. As an anthropologist, George Marcus is best remembered for editing the collection of essays rather than his own ethnographic work; and similarly, James Clifford, a historian, is frequently regarded as an anthropologist by force of being the editor of the same book. The comment also reveals that the book is controversial, and it has witnessed harshly criticism after its appearance. However, there is no denying that Writing Culture is one of the most important books throughout the history of anthropology-the milestone of the post-modern era and the cornerstone of the experimental ethnography (Gao 2007, Scholte 1987). 1. The literary turn There is nothing outside the text. (Derrida) The book, with eleven essays in it (including the introduction and afterword), is based on a series of seminars at the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico, the United States of America in April 1984(Clifford and Marcus 1985). By taking the making of ethnographic text (Clifford and Marcus 1986:vii) as the focal point of their seminars, the participants not only viewed WRITING as a elementary method, but also the central issue of social cultural anthropology. Ethnographic writing is then critically examined in aspects of social context, the use of rhetoric devises, the limitations of disciplinary traditions, the definition of its genre, the political engagement, and historical transformations.[1] Why is writing becoming a principle thing in anthropology? In order to answer this question, inevitably, we take into consideration the literary turn, or say textualism trend in anthropology in the 1980s. The literary turn, just as its name implies, by taking text, writing and literary devices as key concepts and employing textual and literary analyses, is a radical shift which provides strikingly different epistemological and methodological approaches in the discipline of anthropology (Scholte 1987). Although it is difficult to figure out whether Writing Culture is more a cause or a result of the literary turn, the book is definitely a key ingredient of it. I would further suggest that Levi-Strauss, Geertz and Writing Culture should be considered as a sequence in the context of the literary turn. What the Writing Culture authors claim, such as the diversity of representations, possibilities of interpretations, at a glance, are totally different from Levi-Strausss pure unity, reduced models and deep culture grammar. At the same time, Levi-Strausss strong sense of symbol and meaning within a symbolic language system and his linguistic analogy approach (Barrett 1996) are valuable legacies to Geertz and Writing Culture. Furthermore, his research on mythology threw fresh light on the interdisciplinary studies across anthropology and literature. Then, Geertz, who is profoundly influenced by Levi-Strauss and Weber, has a more important and complex influence on Writing Culture. Firstly, his concern of anthropological interpretations and thick descriptions, fieldwork and post fieldwork, (Geertz 19751983) provided the basis for Writing Culture explorations. Secondly, Geertzs local knowledge, natives point of view (Geertz 19751983) and assertion of an amiable and intelligible style insp ired Writing Culture authors to portray fieldwork as a dialogical approach, and consequently take the interactions of ethnographers/the indigenous people (Barrett 1996) and ethnographers/readers in to account. Thirdly, Geertzs ethnographies became important materials of Writing Culture 2. Postcolonial encounter and Cultural Representation I used to rule the world Seas would rise when I gave the word Now in the morning I sweep alone Sweep the streets I used to own One minute I held the key Next the walls were closed on me And I discovered that my castles stand Upon pillars of salt and pillars of sand Lyrics of Viva la Vida (Coldplay 2009) The birth of this book is not narrowly concerned with the inheritance and development of theory and methodology within the discipline, but rather deeply rooted in the historical background and the reconstruction among the entire academic community. As an academic discipline, anthropology is developed in the context of imperialism and colonialism. The long-time contact between European conquerors and the colonists shaped forms of power and knowledge, and anthropologists at that time entered into non-European aboriginal communities as observers and describers (Asad 2002). Anthropology narrated power relations; at the same time it was also potentially counter-hegemonic (Clifford 1986:9). In 1980s, which was the postcolonial and postwar era without the umbrella of the colonial power, anthropology started to face a more complex nexus of power relations. The postcolonial situation affected the main interests of anthropology and challenged the authority of ethnography. Moreover, anthropology from then on, was not only carried out by Europeans and Americans, but also by those from the so-called Third World who were studying their own cultures; and neither Western culture nor the non-Western cultures remained the same in the ever-changi ng world (Clifford 1986, Layton 1997). In Writing Culture, the analyses of ethnographic discourses- asking who speaks? who writes? when and where? with or to whom? under what institutional and historical constrains?(Clifford 1986)-is a repercussion of the postcolonial encounter. Another important feature of the 1980s is the increasing flow of so-called postmodernism in academia-grand narrative was abandoned and details of everyday life took their place. Accordingly, singular culture was replaced by the plural one, and cultures were understood as representations and knowledge; and man with a small m took place of Man with variability. More importantly, the process of rethinking cultural representation again called into question the authenticity of representation itself and Writing Culture elegantly captured the main themes in this discussion. Three Main Themes of the Book In general, Writing Culture is an introspection, which attempts to examine anthropology traditions (especially the traditional ethnography) as well as anthropologists themselves. I will explore three main themes in the reflections. 1. Partial truth Knowledge is power,and that one must never reveal all of what one knows. Saramaka folktale, in Price (1983:14) cited in Clifford (1986:7) The most essential and fundamental point in Writing Culture is the questioning of ethnographic authenticity. In the 1920s, ethnography was defined and established not only as a genre of cultural description depending on intensive participant observation (Clifford 1983), but also a main research method internalised as a academic criterion in the field of anthropology (Gao 2006). This new style of ethnography-scientific ethnography, built by Malinowski, investigated the totality of culture with a holistic view and documented different layers of ethnographic reality(Kuper 1996). About 50 years later, the theorizing of ethnographic realism sprung up. In 1977, Paul Rabinow, who is a contributor of Writing Culture, published his book Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. His provocative descriptions of the fieldwork itself and his own feelings in the field reveal that fieldwork is a process of intersubjective construction of liminal modes of communication (1977:155) which constantly involve s valuation, and the ethnographer is not a objective observer but a real person with self-consciousness and certain cultural background who makes and remakes facts. Unlike the revelations of Malinowskis fieldwork dairy and the Mead-Freeman controversy, anthropologists started to look at themselves consciously and pondered-what is the ethnographic truth. This issue has been argued throughout the book. Take for example Vincent Crapanzanos Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description (1986); he analyses three ethnographic texts by George Catlin, Wolfgang von Goethe and Clifford Geertz to probe how does the ethnographer make his/her work convincing. The three authors use distinctive figures, namely hypotyposis, external theatrical narrativity and interpretive virtuosity, to convince the readers of the descriptions in their texts. He argues that, as a matter of fact, their rhetoric tools make the described events devoiced from the original settings, and finally, it is the ethnographers authority which covers the subversion up. However, the ethnographers authority-his/her presence, perceptual ability, disinterested perspective, objectivity and sincerity (1986:53), is questionable. Does being there mean witnessing everything? Is the perceptual ability trained in a certain culture adequate and reliable? Is disinter ested perspective or objectivity even possible? If not, how can one reach the whole truth by selected fragmentary information? The underlying institutional system and power relations work through all these issues and enmesh in the anthropological knowledge, not to mention the cultural filtering, the information is not completed at the source. Crapanzanos essay reminds us that the ethnographer, like Hermes who decodes and interprets messages, promised to tell no lies but did not promise to tell the whole truth (1986:76). From this perspective, ethnographic truth no longer pursues the true view of the whole world, as Clifford and Rabinow point out in the book, ethnographic truths are partial, committed and incomplete (Clifford 1986:7) and in bondage to cultural settings. 2. Literary devices All constructed truths are made possible by powerful lies of exclusion and rhetoric. As I have mentioned before, Writing Culture is related to the literary turn of anthropology with the foundation of seeing ethnographies as texts. It is easy to point out that another major theme of the book is the literary devices employed in ethnographies, and in which the rhetoric issue has been mostly discussed. For instance, Renato Rosaldos From the Door of His Tent: The Fieldworker and the Inquisitor (1986), by comparing The Nure written by Evens Pritchard with Montaillou written by French social historian Ladurie, demonstrates how ethnographic rhetoric could assist in building authority and objectivity. Needless to repeat, The Nure is a ethnographic masterpiece, and for Montaillou, it is famous for providing an ethnographic analysis of a French community in fourteenth century by using inquisition record. Rosaldo states that, in the first place, in the introductory section, by frankly acknowledging the inequality between the inquisitor / his subjects, the fieldworker/ the Nuer, the authors both indicate the calm presence of mind(1986:89); then, they style themselves as honest men through complaining about the difficulties in gaining information in uneasy tensions between investigators and informants. After that, they claim their information is gradually collected in particles in order to construct the reliability; meanwhile, distanced normalizing mode of discourse, rhetorical absences[2], correspondences[3], etc. are used to enhance the sense of objectivity. In sum, the rhetorical work in introductory parts of the two books by means of separating the context of colonial domination from the production of ethnographic knowledge (1986:93)establish the authors innocence and the ethnographic authority as well. Furthermore, in both authors, the pastoral mode is invoked. The literary mode of pastoral is, firstly a symbol of the spiritual liberty, secondly a mobile position of speaking, and thirdly a label of courtesy and respect. Rosaldos essay interestingly illustrates that, although the power and knowledge relations have not been completely kicked off, to a great extent, they are concealed by the rhetoric tools. Ethnographic rhetoric has a strong impact on the understandings of the ethnographic texts (Scholte 1987). 3. Writing of Self Continued from the preceding paragraph, the mobility in ethnographers positions is demonstrated cumulatively in other chapters of Writing Culture as well. Fieldwork in Common Places by Mary Louis Pratt (1986) provides an illustration. Her essay focuses on the significant history of the relationship between personal narrative and impersonal description (1986:27) in ethnographies and travel writings. Pratt starts with a controversy that anthropology graduate Florinda Donners work Shabobo: A True Adventure in the Remote and Magical Heart of the South American Jungle is facing accusations of plagiarism, because there are some events in her book which are the same as others. Here, Pratt asks a very inspiring question: as ethnography demands accurate descriptions, for describing the same events at the same place, how could Donners work not resemble others? Pratt argues that the authority of ethnography, in some sense, is based on the unique and original personal experience in the field not the factual accuracy (1986:29) of a certain ethnography. From this perspective, personal narratives cannot be eliminated from ethnography, and it also explains why the subgenre of formal ethnography, such as Malinowskis diaries, has not been killed by science (1986:31), but turned into a prolonged tradition of anthropology. Even in formal ethnographies, personal narrative is an integral part. It marks the relationship among the fieldworker, indigenous people, and the audience. It also serves as a regulator, reconciling the inconsistency between the subjective engagement in fieldwork, and the detachment; the self-effacement in formal ethnographic writing. Moreover, her analysis shows that, even in the time of so-called scientific ethnography, ethnographers were writing from multiple, constantly shifting positions, and self is never a scientist-observer (1986:39). To consider further from this point, we could identity a difference between classical ethnography and experimental ethnography. For Malinowski, and his students Firth and Evens-Prichard, the writing of self is a strategy serving for building the authority of scientific ethnography; however, for Rabinow and his contemporary anthropologists, the consciously self-realization in ethnographic writing successfully opens up a dimension for reflective thinking. The self, thus, is public, and mediates in different cultures. The appearance of the new kind of self writing is very provocative: epistemologically, in view of the production and explanation of the knowledge,it penetrates into the relationship between knowledge of self and knowledge of the Other and how knowledge is hermeneutically represented(Rapport, and Overing 2000); methodologically, it seeks for the diversity of ethnographic writing, more specifically, the expression of the subjectivity, the utilization of rhetoric, or, I would say, the writing style. 4. A summary of the three themes: one centre and two basic relationships Throughout all three themes-ethnographic truth, rhetoric in ethnography, and the writing of self, there is a central point-the construction of ethnographic authority, which cannot be comprehended without reference to the power relations. The power relations derive from the Foucaultian intertwining of knowledge and power in the academic discipline as well as the fluctuant historical and political affiliation. Here, I will not repeat these issues which I have argued in the first part, rather, I would suggest two relationships existing in the main themes of Writing Culture: a) ethnographers and the natives they studied, and b) anthropologists and their readers. Having inherited the tradition of Geertzs interpretive anthropology, Writing Culture highlights the reconstruction of the ethnographer/informant relations (Wang Gao). Indigenous people and their culture are no longer viewed as silent and uniform objects. Ethnographic knowledge, as suggested by Rabinow (1977), is built on a bilateral understanding in certain cultural contexts. At the same time, more importantly, the book pays close attention to the relationship between anthropologists and the readers. Same as the literary outputs, ethnographies shape the relations with the audiences through texts (Xu 2001). Both the completed texts and reading activities are certainly influenced by the literary processes (Clifford 1986). By scanning how ethnographies communicate with their readers, the reflexive essays[4] portray ethnography as a kind of dialogue, and the conversational readership allows, or I could say, encourages the readers to take part in the investigation of ethnographic writing. In addition, the discussions regarding the ethnographers distinguished positions in describing others and expressing Self, permit the readers to obtain the different perspectives which the ethnographers have themselves. As Spencer indicated (1989), the correspondence to multiple positions provided by a master hand is a feature of a good ethnography. Why is it important to tak e the readership of ethnography into consideration? I think it depends largely on the unique and versatile character of this readership. Marcus and Cushman (1982) present six categories of readerships of ethnography. The categories differ in purpose, positions, and some of them may merge with another (the first and second one in particular) or others: (1) the specialist readership, (2) the general anthropological readership, (3) readerships from the other social sciences (4) the student readership, (5) the action oriented readership,(6)the popular readership(1982:51-52). Ethnography, firstly, as a genre and a method as well, interposes itself between humanities (relating to category 1 and 2) and social sciences (relating to category 3); secondly, serves as a puberty rite for professional anthropologists (relating to category 4); thirdly, emerges into social and political decision-making for certain historical and institutional reasons (relating to category 5); and finally, attracts common readers thanks to its literary feature and exotic nature (relating to category 6). It is obvious that the readerships of ethnography are extremely complicated and should be carefully identified. Both ethnographers and readers must be self-conscious (Rapport 2000). Hence, the ethnographer/reader relation issue raised by Writing Culture writers, from this angle, is stimulating from the 1980s till today. The ethnographer/reader relation, together with the ethnographer/informant relation, is located in the power discourse and knowledge discourse. Once again, the two relationships echo the central idea of Writing Culture-the authority and power. In a word, although the three themes I proposed are not a very complete summary of the book, the one centre and two basic relationships they conveyed, in my opinion, have demonstrated the most insight and innovation of Writing Culture. Writing Culture: the Chinese Experience In the preliminary report of the Writing Culture seminar and papers, Clifford and Marcus state that Writing Culture is lacking the feminist point of view as well as Third World or non-European approach (Clifford and Marcus 1985). For the former omission, I agree with Schotle (1987) that, some feminist perspectives is inconspicuously harbored in Pratts essay. However, for sure, there is not a so-called Third World standpoint in Writing Culture, which I think is a significant irony for its analysis of power play in the post-colonial time. In Third World countries, anthropology is in a very different context. Their people and cultures have for a long time been discovered, observed, described, and represented by Westerners. Non-Western anthropologists and their ethnographic works are the symbols of the reconfiguration within the discipline, and most of them naturally locate their fieldwork sites in their own cultures to study their own people. Generally speaking, anthropology[5] of the Third World witnesses a fruitful period in the postwar era, which is also the golden age of experimental ethnography, and to some extent, it could be taken as anthropology at home which employs the self-reflexive approach mentioned in Writing Culture. I will then, taking China as an example, look at some ethnographic cases conducted by Chinese anthropologists relating to Writing Culture. I assume it a good perspective to explore the influential power of Writing Culture and its echoes. The first case is Huang Shumins ethnography The Spiral Road:Change In A Chinese Village Through The Eyes Of A Communist Party Leader(1998). Depending on his one-year fieldwork (first ten chapters) and a revisit (chapter 1112) in a village in Fujian province, China, Huang provides a picture of the huge political and economic change and development in a Chinese village from the founding of Peoples Republic of China to the 1990s as well as the impact on the personal and pubic life of a peasant, who is the a political leader in the community. The political struggles, the hardship of raising a family, and the peasants life wisdom are vividly described through a first-person narrative life history approach. Although his novel-like ethnography is first published in English, Huang is regarded as one of the best Chinese anthropologists for his proficient writing skills and great success in narrating the complexity of historical events in rural China in a lighter tone. The second case is drawn from Li Chunxias PhD dissertation Television and the Life of Yi People in China (2005)[6]. As a Yi[7] anthropologist, her ethnography explores how television profoundly incorporated into the fabric (2005: 5) of local peoples daily life. In the text, Lis fieldwork notes collected during her three-year fieldwork at her own village give expression to her close emotional ties with native people, and deliver her concerns and worries of the ethnic minorities living circumstances in contemporary China. Meanwhile, as a scholar, she keenly captures the metaphorical meaning of modernization, development and prosperity by television. Her analysis penetrates into the relations of Yi people/Han people, and pre-modern/modern. The reflexivity about the periphery/centre relations is a main steam in contemporary anthropology of China. The third case is Zhuang Kongshaos ethnographic research on a hot topic in Chinese culture and society: the family education (Zhuang and Feng 2006). He describes the communications and conflicts between a mother and her seven years old daughter and the relations among school education, family education and social education. Zhuang is a pioneer in anthropology of China, not only because he introduces a new approach called educational anthropology, most importantly, the final production of Zhuangs fieldwork is an ethnographic film named My Wife, My Daughter. It is actually beyond the scope of Writing Culture, because it is no longer about the writing and the text. I adopt this case here, trying to argue that, Writing Culture highlights the diversity of ethnography, and now, facing the radical form of ethnography, can the arguments in Writing Culture on ethnographic texts fit in ethnographic films? What is the same and the difference between the grammars of ethnographic writing and seei ng? Are pictures more worthy than words in constructing ethnographic authority? Can texts and films be combined in ethnographic enterprise? Why and how? The book it self is an open ended text, and constantly simulates new questions for anthropologists in the post Writing Culture era, and that also explains why Writing Culture, after more than twenty years, is still being quoted and debated all over the world. It is true, as Schotle harshly points out (1987), that lots of questions in this book remains unclear and unsettled. However, I appreciate the original questions it raised and the appeal to dialogue. Rethinking Writing Culture Following the reflexive direction, I have three points to make on rethinking the book. Before that, I present a brief schema of the three-stage ethnographic research as follows. There is nothing new, however, my questions are based on it. First, with the text-orientation, has the importance of writing been stressed over that of doing ethnography in the book? The potential risk in the textualism emphasized in Writing Culture is that fieldwork retires from the leading position, it has provided a context for substituting the empirical research. As we can see from the schema, fieldwork is the centre of ethnographic research in time and space, and it is also the foundation of anthropology. In this experimental moment, we should not only look at the outcome of fieldwork, but also reflect upon the limitations and new characteristics in fieldwork processes in this Writing Culture or post Writing Culture era. Second, going back to the very first stage, I would argue, different backgrounds of Western and non-Western ethnographers shape two distinguished patterns of reflexive thinking. First, the Western pattern could be called coming home, after studying the Other, from outside in, anthropologists return to the Self, their reflexive thinking is about their own tradition in their own cultural institutions. Second, the non-Western pattern could be named as being home, they do not have a return perspective, their reflexive thinking is still deeply in relation to the West. I fear, in reflexive anthropology, which is greatly established by Writing Culture, anthropologists in the Third World would be more marginalized through their resistance in this centre-periphery discourse. My final thought is on rhetoric issue, which is still an incomprehensible question to me. If rhetoric is an integral component of ethnographic writing, as Rosaldo (1986) argued, there are using and abusing of descriptive rhetoric, then, the next obvious question is: what is the boundary between use and abuse of rhetoric? It seems to me that, use, is a kind of abuse in itself, if so, how can one control it? Epilogue In the final part of my essay, I would like to do an experiment. I will write about my reading experience instead of the conclusion of the whole passage. I originally read this book in Chinese in my junior year at college. As a literature student, I found the book interesting and inspiring, and it positively influenced me in the choosing of anthropology for graduate study. Later, I reread the book both in English and Chinese, and accessed some related articles written by Writing Culture writers. Surprisingly, I found several articles written in collaboration with Clifford and Marcus. Other than this landmark book, Marcus, together with Cushman, wrote Ethnographies as Texts (1982), which is a harbinger of Writing Culture; and he, later, with Fischer, produced the companion volume of Writing Culture-Anthropology as Cultural Critique (1986). Behind these collaborations, I can imagine the interactions of sparkling thoughts as well as understandings and communications. They are spirits of academic research, and also the anthropological endeavor. References Archetti, E.P. (ed.) (1994) Exploring the written: anthropology and the multiplicity of writing. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press. Asad, T. (1986) The concept of cultural translation in British social anthropology, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Asad, T. (2002) From the history of colonial anthropology to the anthropology of Western hegemony, in Vincent, J. (ed.) InThe Anthropology of Politics: A Reader in Ethnography, Theory and Critique, Oxford: Blackwell. Barrett, S.R. (1996) Anthropology: a students guide to theory and method. Toronto. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. Clifford, J. (1983) On ethnographic authority, Representations, 2, pp. 118-146. JSTOR[Online]. Available at:http://www.jstor.org/stable/2928386 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (1985) The making of ethnographic texts: a preliminary report, Current Anthropology, 26(2), pp. 267-271. JSTOR[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743141 (Accessed: 13 March 2010) Clifford, J. (1986) Introduction: partial truth, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clifford, J. and Marcus (1986) Preface, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Crapanzano, V. (1986) Hermess Dilemma: The Masking of Subversion in Ethnographic Description, in Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.E. (eds.) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fabian, J. (1990) Presence and representation: the Other and anthropological writing, Critical Inquiry, 16(4), pp. 753-772, SAGE[Online].Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343766 (Accessed: 13 December 2009) Gao, BZ. (2006) The three periods in the development of ethnography-translators preface to Writing Culture, Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 28(3), pp 58-63. CNKI[Online]. DOI: cnki:ISSN:1002-3887.0.2006-03-012 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Gao, BZ. et al.(2007) On Writing Culture, Reading, 2007(4), CNKI[Online]. DOI: CNKI:ISSN:0257-0270.0.2007-04-026 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Geertz, G. (1975) The interpretation of cultures. London: Hutchinson. Geertz, G. (1983) Local knowledge: further essays in interpretive anthropology. New York: Basic Books. Geertz, G. (1988) Worksandlives: the anthropologist as author. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Harrell, S. (2001) The anthropology of reform and the reform of anthropology: anthropological narratives of recovery and progress in China, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, pp. 139-161. JSTOR[Online]. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3069212 (Accessed: 03 March 2010) Huang, JB. (2004) The contending of Writing Culture-Post-modern discourse in anthropology and the change in the sudies, Thinking, 30 (4), pp. 39-43. CNKI[Online]. Available at: cnki:ISSN:1001-778X.0.2004-04-009 (Accessed: 10 November 2009) Huang, SM. (1998) The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village Through theEyes of a Communist Party Leader. 2nd edn. Boulder: Westview Press. James, A. Hockey, J. and Dawson, A. (eds.) (1997) After writing culture: epistemology and praxis in contemporary anthropolog

Cognitive Psychology False Memory Essay

Theoretical and Applied/Practical Perspective of False Memory The human memory is subject to a multitude of errors, including source misattributions, distortion and creation of false memories. In order to do justice to this paper one must first determine what is â€Å"False memory†? False memory is memory for an event that did not occur or distorted memory of actual events (Gleaves, Smith, Butler, & Spiegel, 2004). This type of memory has been an area of intense research interest for both theoretical and practical reasons and psychologists have long been interested in memory illusions and distortions, as such errors can inform theories of how the memory works (Hunt & Ellis, 2004). From a theoretical perspective, false memories have been the subject of intense debates about the nature of human memory and a focal point for old and new memory theories. Memories are not simply stored and retrieved, information is encoded and memories are reconstructed using previous knowledge to p iece together the situation as one thinks it occurred (Loftus & Ketchan, 1994). Therefore perception and comprehension of ongoing events always brings related information to mind. For example, an individual mentions that he/she had a great trip to the beach over the weekend. In comprehending what the individual is saying; one may imagine their last visit to Miami Beach. Later one remembers that the said individual mentioned his/her visit to Miami Beach when, in fact, the individual said nothing about which beach he/she visited. This example illustrates how frequently one might remember information related to ones ongoing perception and comprehension, even though the events represented by that information never occurred (Hunt & Ellis, 2004). One of the most common ways that false memories have been studied is through the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect. This list learning paradigm provided a traceable means by which false memories can be created and studied in the laboratory. Gallo, McDermott, Percer & Roediger III (2001) explained that the DRM paradigm was a method of using converging semantic associates to induce false memories. It basically referred to the high confidence false recall or recognition of the critical lure. Within the study subjects were given a list of words for immediate free recall. These words were all associated semantically with a critical lure which itself was not presented. For example, if the critical lure was sleep the list would have consisted of fifteen words most highly associated with sleep such as bed to the least highly associated which would be drowsy on free association norms. Even though the critical lure was not on the list, subjects often falsely reported it and on recognition tests, these individuals often â€Å"remember† these words with a high degree of confidence (Surgrue & Hayne, 2006). False memories arising from phonologically associated lists may indeed be enhanced by phonological encoding in comparison with semantic encoding. False memories therefore can be elicited by presenting lists of phonologically related words in both recognition and recall tasks (Chan, McDermott, Watson & Gallo, 2005). According to the fuzzy traced theory (as cited in Howe, 2008), subjects encode both verbatim information about the experience to gist information about the experience. Applied to the DRM paradigm gist information represents the semantic commonalities among lure’s studied associates, which lead the fuzzy trace theory to propose that lure errors are familiarity based (Arndt, 2010). Memory errors to unstudied items arise from how well they match gist traces and that memory errors are limited by the extent to which unstudied items produce retrieval of verbatim traces. Therefore lure errors increase when they match the gists representation of their studied associates but decrease when retrieval is inspired of the verbatim traces of their studied associates (Howe, 2008). Once the gist representation is reasonably strong it can produce an illusory subjective experience of its actual presentation, this is known as phantom recollection (Gallo, McDermott, Percer & Roediger III, 2001). When this phenomenon occurs an individual may confuse the gist trace strength with the psychological experience of recollecting, which is normally mediated by retrieving verbatim traces of studied items. As lure items tend to match very strong gist traces in memory individuals believe they can recollect DRM lures. According to Arndt, (2010), â€Å"this theory proposes that although these errors are often phenomenologically similar to items that were episodically experienced, lures’ recollection phenomenology is representationally distinct from that of study items† (p.67). There is evidence however that false memory can be based largely on automatic processing and is amenable to only limited conscious control. For example, Dodd and MacLeod (2004), showed that mere exposure to DRM lists was sufficient to create a false memory: They presented DRM lists as coloured words in a Stroop test. Naming colours reduced accurate memory for list words as compared to reading coloured words, but false memory remained high for critical words. Furthermore, the elimination of false memory is difficult in that certain â€Å"encoding manipulations may lead to reductions in false memories through metamemorial processes occurring at retrieval† (Gallo, McDermott, Percer & Roediger III, 2001, p.339). For example slowing presentation rate decreases the probability of false remembering, but may not eliminate it (Gallo, McDermott, Percer & Roediger III, 2001). False memories are remarkably persistent. For example, Toglia, Neuschatz and Goodwin (1999) found that false recall rates remained high over a three-week period, whereas recall of studied words revealed the typical decrement. In short, the DRM paradigm allows for the easy and reliable elicitation of false memories in the laboratory. From a practical perspective, false memories are a threat to the validity of eyewitness testimony, a misleading source of autobiographical information in psychotherapy, and a biased representation of lessons taught in educational settings. For this assignment the validity of eyewitness testimony only, will be discussed (Hunt & Ellis, 2004). According to Greene (as cited in Loftus, 1995, p.720), â€Å"memories do not exist in a vacuum. Rather, they continually disrupt each other through a mechanism that we call â€Å"interference†. For instance, memories can be disrupted by things that an individual experienced earlier, this is known as proactive interference or situations that one may experience later, which is known as retroactive interference. Based on the interference theory from a retroactive interference perspective, when new information is received that is mislea ding in some ways individuals make errors when they report what they saw. The reason for this is that new information often becomes incorporated into the recollection, supplementing or altering it in a significant way (Porter, Bellhouse, McDougall, Brinke & Wilson, 2010). Elizabeth Loftus (as cited in Hunt & Ellis, 2004), pioneered laboratory research modeled on eyewitness situation demonstrating the intervening events that occur between witnessing an event and subsequent testimony in court. The paradigm for this research was simple, participants witnesses a simulated violent crime of an automobile accident half of the participants received new misleading information about the event and the other half did not received any misinformation. The participants in this experiment were influenced by presuppositions invoked by the verbs smashed and hit based on the question asked, which was â€Å"About how fast the car was going when they hit, smashed each other †. Smashed presupposes a more violent collision a fact that influences both estimates of speed an d amount of damage. Therefore individuals who stated that there was broken glass saw the word â€Å"smashed†, but no broken glass was actually depicted in the film. The presupposition dramatically, but subtly influenced memory for the actual event (Loftus, 1995). What was being remembered was the integrated memory of the two events, memory for the original film, plus memory for the additional information that was inherent in the question asked later. As the two memories blended over time the end result would be a single blended memory that is a distortion of the original event (Hunt & Ellis, 2004). Higham (1998), showed that the latency between exposure to misinformation and time recall also influenced the misinformation effect, such that recent exposure to recent information was associated with greater recall of false details. Therefore both the response bias and memory change accounts have important implications for how one might regard the reliability of eyewitness testimony. According to Loftus & Pickrell (1995), false memories can be implanted as was demonstrated in the â€Å"Lost-in-a-shopping-mall† study. It suggested that memory of an entire mildly traumatic event can be created and that further questions may be asked, such as, is it possible to implant a memory of abuse. For example one of the most dramatic cases of false memory of abuse ever to be documented was the case of Paul Ingram from Olympia, Washington (Ofshe, 1992; Watters, 1991). This individual was arrested for child abuse in 1988 at the time he was chair of the county Republican committee. From the outset he denied everything, but after five months of interrogation, suggestions from a psychologist and continuing pressure from detectives and advisors, Ingram began to confess to rapes, assaults, child sexual abuse, and participation in a Satan-worshiping cult alleged to have murdered 25 babies (Loftus, 1993). Ofshe (1989) noted that this was not the first time that a vulnerable individual had been made to believe that he had committed a crime for which he originally had no memory and which evidence proved he could not have committed. What is crucial about the Ingram case is that some of the same methods that are used in repressed memory cases were used with Ingram. This case also provides further insights into the malleable nature of memory. They suggest that memories for personally traumatic events can be altered by new experiences. Moreover, they reveal that entire events that never happened can be injected into memory. Therefore false memories range from the relatively trivial (e.g., remembering voting) to the bizarre (e.g., remembering forcing one’s daughter and son to have sex) (Loftus, 1993). These false memories, with more or less detail, of course, do not prove that repressed memories of abuse that return are false. They do demonstrate a mechanism by which false memories can be created, by a small suggestion from a trusted family member, by hearing someone lie, by suggestion from a psychologist, or by incorporation of the experiences of others into one’s own autobiography planted (Loftus, 1993). Although false memories of ones childhood can be implanted, it does not imply that all memories that arise after suggestion are necessarily false, although the experimental work on false memory creation raises doubt about the validity of long buried memories such as repeated trauma, but it in no way disproves them. Even with the most experienced evaluator, it is difficult to differentiate true memories from ones that are suggestively planted (Loftus, 1997). True memories represent events as they really occurred, whereas false memories shade, distort or entirely misrepresent events as they really happened. Research on memory distortion indicates that memory is not at all like a mechanical recording device. The original experience is not stored as some veridical trace of what was out there but, rather, is the result of interpretive processes of perception and comprehension. The intriguing picture of memory that emerges is one of a powerful, adaptively important and usually reliable psychological process that sometimes is completely wrong (Hunt & Ellis, 2004). References Arndt, J. (2010). The role of memory activation in creating false memories of encoding context. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36(1), 66-79. Chan, C. K. J., McDermott, B. K., Watson, M. J., & Gallo, A. D. ( 2005). The importance of material-processing interactions in inducing false memories. Journal of Memory & Cognition, 33 (3) 389-395. Dodd, M. D., & MacLeod, C. M. (2004). False recognition without intentional learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 137-142. Gallo, A. D., McDermott, B. K., Percer, M. J., & Roediger, L. H. III. (2001). Modality Effects in False Recall and False Recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 27 (2) 339-353 Gleaves, D. H., Smith, S. M., Butler, L. D., & Spiegel, D. (2004). False and recovered memories in the laboratory and clinic: A review of experimental and clinic evidence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11 3-28. Higham, P. A. (1998). Believing details known to have been suggested. British Journal of Psychology, 89, 920-930. Howe, L. M. (2008). What is false memory development and the development of comment on Brainerd, Reyna and Ceci (2008), Psychological Bullentin, 134 (5), 768-772. Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, C. H. (2004). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology (7th Ed). McGraw Hill. Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1994). False memories and allegations of sexual abuse: The myth of repressed memory. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Loftus, E.F. (1997). Creating false memories. Scientific American, 277, 70-75. Loftus, E.F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518-537. Loftus, E.F., & Pickrell, E. J. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals , 25, 720-725. Ofshe, R. J. (1992). Inadvertent hypnosis during interrogation: False confession due to dissociative state, misidentified multiple personality and the satanic cult hypothesis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 40, 125-156. Ofshe, R. J. (1989). Coerced confessions: The logic of seemingly irrational action. Cultic Studies Journal, 6, 1-15 Porter, S., Bellhouse, S., McDougall, A., Brinke, T. L., & Wilson, K. (2010). A prospective investigation of the vulnerability of memory for positive and negative emotional scenes to the misinformation effect. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 42 (1) 55-61. Surgrue, K., & Hayne, H. (2006). False Memories produced by children and Adults in the DRM Paradigm. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 625-631. Toglia, M. P., Neuschatz, J. S., & Goodwin, K. (1999). Recall accuracy and illusory memories: When more is less. Memory, 7, 233-256. Watters, E. (1991). The devil in Mr. Ingram. Mother Jones, 65-68.